Different Intelligence Collection Disciplines
Mar 26, 2025
Intelligence refers to helpful information derived after planning for, collecting, processing, and analyzing raw data in the intelligence cycle. The intelligence is then given to consumers or end users for policy and decision-making. Intelligence can be strategic, tactical, or operational, depending on the end-user and purpose.
One of the primary and oldest intelligence collection disciplines is human intelligence (HUMINT), which refers to information from human sources. Spies, confidential informants, diplomats, and military attaches collect HUMINT in the military and espionage worlds. It remains the primary intelligence collection method, and in most cases, other disciplines only serve to reinforce HUMINT.
The familiar intelligence mining sources for open and unclassified HUMINT collection include conferences, interrogation centers in refugee camps, prisoners of war, legal foreign travelers debriefing, and unclassified publications. The travel debriefings consist of questions for individuals who have traveled to other countries legally for various purposes, including work, especially for high-profile staff like those working in intelligence and military systems research and development. The questions typically include any diversion of itinerary, contact or approach by a foreign national, and possible surveillance. However, classified and sensitive HUMINT sources include recruited or volunteered agents. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) collects HUMNIT in the United States. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) collects the same outside the United States.
Signals intelligence (SIGINT) is from electronic transmissions emitted by ground sources, ships, satellites, and planes. The National Security Agency (NSA) intercepts communications by using communications intelligence (COMINT), electronic intelligence (ELINT), and foreign instrumentation signals intelligence (FISINT). COMIT is the easiest to acquire since it moves over airwaves, fiber, cable, and other transmitters. ELINT comprises noncommunication mediums such as radar, while FISINT uses sensors and other devices to intercept the telemetry of weapons and space systems. Telemetry is the automatic recording and transmission of information from remote or inaccessible locations for monitoring and analysis.
Measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT) uses scientific and technical information from data analysis on information from technical sensors. MASINT mainly focuses on information patterns that must be explored and comprises radar, infrared, telemetry, acoustic, and nuclear intelligence. It aims to use the analysis to identify distinctive characteristics associated with the data source and the sender. Since most sources or patterns are unknown, MASINT compares the data with known forms or types and seeks the closest match. The intelligence facilitates the measurements and identification of that sender or emitter.
Geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) combines imagery and geospatial information. The military and civilians use GEOINT to map and track changes in geographical features, such as soil erosion, farming, and desert expansion. Image intelligence analysis, called IMINT, comprises electronic or optical representation of objects on a display screen, film, and other media. The intelligence team sources IMINT from visual photography, lasers, sensors, and electro-optics and produces them in hard or soft copy for analysis and dissemination. However, adverse weather and poor lighting can degrade the quality and usefulness of IMINT.
Open-source intelligence (OSINT) uses publicly available materials that collate and analyze data to detect patterns or gain meaningful intelligence. OSINT typically provides information on research activities, for example, from scientists taking part in a project, organization dynamics, and technical processes. The organizational dynamics include the hierarchical structures in sensitive institutions like the military and research and development agencies involved in national security. OSINT is frequently used for intelligence on technical processes like design documentation for military systems since it is possible to source data and trade secrets from technical journals and manuals.